Unit 6- Learning

Learning

Learning: A long lasting change in behavior due to experience.

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was a Russian physiologist known primarily for his work in classical conditioning. He experimented with dogs, their ability to salivate is a learned one.



Classical Conditioning: is passive learning, when its automatic the learner doesn't have to think about its actions.

Unconditioned stimulus: is something that causes an automatic natural reaction. 

Unconditioned Response: A natural, usually unvarying response evoked by a stimulus in the absence of learning or conditioning.
  
Neutral Stimulus: is one that elicits no response.

Acquisition: refers to the first stages of learning when a response is established.

Extinction: refers to the gradual weakening of a conditioned response that results in the behavior decreasing or disappearing.

In John Watson's baby Albert experiment, he shows that emotional reactions can be classically conditioned to people. 

 

Garcia and Koelling Study: Fed rats sweet liquid followed by an injection which made them sick, then the rats avoided sweet liquid. (Taste Aversion) 




Operant Conditioning: is a type of learning in which an individual's behavior is modified by its antecedents and consequences.

The Law of Effect: Edward Thorndike placed cats in puzzle boxes, the cats learned to pull the lever to come out of the box to a reward of fish. Any behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and any behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is likely to be stopped.

BF Skinner: Believed the best way to understand behavior is to look at the causes of an action and its consequences. (Operant Conditioning)




Reinforcer: anything that increases a behavior. There's positive reinforcement, which is the addition of something good, and Negative reinforcement, the removal of something unpleasant. 

 

Shaping: the process of reinforcing a specific behavior that a person is trying to install within their subject.



Chaining Behaviors: Subjects are taught a number of responses in succession to get a reward.  










Primary Reinforcers: things which are in themselves rewarding.
Secondary Reinforcers: things we have learned to value (money is a generalized reinforcer)




Token Economy:  is a system of behavior modification based on the systematic reinforcement of target behavior.

Premack Principle: Taking into consideration the reinforcers used, the reinforcer wanted.  

Reinforcement Schedule: How often you use the reinforcer. 
Fixed Ratio: reinforcement after a set number of responses. 
Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after a RANDOM number of responses. 



Observational Learning: Albert Bandura, we learn through modeling behavior from others. 



Latent learning: 3 rat experiment, Edward Toleman, Latent means hidden. 

Sensation

Sensation: the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment. 

Perception: the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events. 

Bottom-up processing: analysis that begins with the brain receptors and works up to the brains integration of sensory information. 

Top-down processing: information processing guided by higher level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations.

Psychophysics: the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them. 

Absolute Threshold: the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.

Subliminal: Below ones absolute threshold for conscious awareness. 

Difference Threshold: the minimum difference that a person can detect between 2 stimuli.

Weber's Law: the principle that, to percieve their difference, 2 stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage. 

Sensory Adaptation: diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.

Transduction: conversion of one form of energy to another. Transforming of stimulus energies into neural impulses.

The Eye

Wavelength: the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next.

Hue: the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green and so forth. 

Intensity: the amount of energy in a light or sound wave.

Pupil: the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.

Iris: ring of colored muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls size of pupil opening.

Lens: the transperent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to focus images on the retina.

Accommodation: the process by which the eyes lens changes shape to focus the image of near objects on the retina,

Retina: the light sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.

Acuity: the sharpeness of vision.

   

Central Nervous System (CNS) Brain and Spinal Cord


Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) All nerves that are not encased in bones, everything but the spinal cord. Divided into 2 categories, Somatic and Automatic.
 
Somatic Nervous system controls voluntary movement. 
Autonomic Nervous system controls automatic functions of the body. Divided into 2 categories, Sympathetic and Parasympathetic.
Sympathetic Nervous System is the Fight or Flight response accelerates heart beating (ect) 
Parasympathetic Nervous System automatically slows the body down after a stressful event. Heart rate and breathing slow down pupils constrict and digestion speeds up. 

Reflexes (neurons) Normally sensory neurons take into up through spine to the brain. 

Lesions, cuts made to the brain to look for change. 

Brain Structures  

Hindbrain- medulla oblongata, controls heart rate, blood pressure. Pons, connect hindbrain, mid and forebrain together, controls facial expressions, the cerebellum, located int he back of the head, called the "little brain", coordinates muscle movement. 

Midbrain- Coordinates simple movements with sensory information, contains reticular formation, controls arousal and ability to focus. 

Forebrain- Thalamus recieves sensory information and sends them to appropriate areas of forebrain. The Thalamus is like a scoreboard.

Limbic System, controls emotions, made up of hypothalamus, the hypothalamus is pea sized but plays an important role, controls body temperature, hunger, set body temperature.

Hyppocampus- processes memories

Amygadala- linked to both fear responses and pleasure.

Cerebral Cortex is the top layer of the brain, contains wrinkles called fissures. Fissures increase surface size of the brain. laid out it would be about the size of a pizza.

Hemispheres 
Divided into a left and right side hemisphere. The left side of the brain controls the right side of the body and vice versa. Lefties are logical, right are artistic.
The corpus callosum attaches the 2 hemispheres of the cerebral cortex. 

The Cerebral cortex is made up of 4 lobes

The Frontal lobe controls thought, movement, emotion, the motor cortex sends signals to the body controlling muscle movements. Brocas area is responsible for controlling muscles that produce speech. 

Parietial lobe contains sensory cortex, receives incoming touch sensations from the rest of the body, made up of association areas. Information and coordinating muscle movements.

Occipital lobe deals with vision, contains visual cortex, interprets messages from our eyes into images we can understand. 

Temporal lobe processes sounds sensed by our ears, contains Wernike's Area, interprets written and spoken speech.  



  

The nervous system- starts with the neuron, a cell. 



Neurotransmitters are chemicals held in the terminal buttons.
A Synapse is a structure that permits a neuron to pass a chemical or electrical signal to another cell. 

Electro-chemical process- Electrical- inside the neuron Chemical- outside the neuron. Firing is called action potential. 

All or None Principle- The idea that the neuron either fires or does not. (like a gun) 

Neurotransmitters- Chemical messengers released by terminal buttons through the synapse. 

4 types of Neurotransmitters

1.) Acetylcholine (ACH) Deals with motor movement and memory, lack of ACH is linked to Alzheimers. 

2.) Dopamine Deals with motor movement and alertness, lack of dopamine linked to Parkinson's 

3.) Serotonin is involved in mood control, lack of serotonin has been linked to depression.

4.) Endorphins are involved in pain control, many of our addictive drugs deal with endorphins 

                         

Sensory neurons take information from the brain. 
Inter-neurons take messages from the sensory neurons to other parts of the brain.
Motor neurons take information from brain to rest of the body.

Emotion

James Lang Theory of Emotion: experience of emotion is awareness of physiological responses to emotion arousing stimuli. We feel emotion because of biological changes caused by stress. 

Cannon Bard Theory of Emotion: emotion arousing stimuli simultaneously trigger physiological responses, subjective emotion. 

Two Factor Theory: To experience emotion, one must own our emotion.





Lie Detectors: Polygraph machine used to detect lies. Measures changes in blood pressure and heart rate.



Catharsis: emotional release, feel good, do good phenomenon.

Adaption Level Phenomenon: Tendency to form judgments relative to a neutral level. 

Relative Deprivation: Perception that one is worse off than those whom they compare themselves to.

Motivation

A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.



Instinct Theory: We are motivated by our inborn automated behaviors. Instincts only explain why we do a small fraction of our behaviors. 



Drive Reduction Theory: The idea that physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need. 


Incentive: A positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior. 
  

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Abraham Maslow said we are motivated by needs, and all needs are not created equal. We are driven to satisfy lower needs first.




Hunger: Hunger is both physical and psychological. Hunger doesn't come from out stomach, but from our brain.

Lateral Hypothalamus: When stimulated makes you hungry. 

Ventromedial Hypothalamus: When stimulated makes you feel full. 



Leptin: a protein produced by bloated blood cells. Hypothalamus senses rises in leptin and curb eating and increase activity. 

Set Point: Hypothalamus acts like a thermostat, we are meant to be in a certain weight range. 

Body Chemistry: Glucose hormone, insulin, converts glucose to fat, when glucose levels drop, hunger increases. 

Hypothalamus and Hormones: Hypothalamus monitors a number of hormones that are related to hunger. 

Psychology of Hunger

Externals: People who's eating is triggered more by the presence of food than internal factors.

Bulimia Nervosa: Characterized by purging and binging.  

Anorexia Nervosa: Starve themselves below 85% normal body weight.

Intrinsic motivators: Rewards we get internally such as enjoyment or satisfaction.

 

Extrinsic motivators: Rewards we get for accomplishments from outside ourselves.  

 
Theory X: Managers believe that employees will work only if rewarded with benefits or threatened with punishments. (Interested in Maslows Lower Needs) 

Theory Y: Managers believe that employees are internally motivated to do good work. (Interested in Maslows Higher Needs)